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Lanthanum-doped reduced graphene oxide modified screen-printed carbon electrode for lactic acid sensing

International Journal of Reconfigurable and Embedded Systems (IJRES) · Vol. 15 No. 3 (2026) · pp. 671–682

DOI
10.11591/ijres.v15.i3.pp671-682
ISSN
2722-2608, 2089-4864
Published
2026-11-01
Publisher
Institute of Advanced Engineering and Science
Language
eng
License
creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0

Abstract

This study develops a high-performance lactic acid sensor by modifying screen-printed carbon electrodes (SPCEs) with lanthanum-doped reduced graphene oxide (La-rGO). To enable portable and wearable applications, the sensor is integrated into an internet of things (IoT) architecture utilizing a micro-power analog front-end (AFE), an ESP32-C6 controller, and a field-programmable gate array (FPGA) coprocessor for dynamic calibration. Electrochemical characterization demonstrated a high sensitivity of 20.36 µA·mM⁻¹·cm⁻², surpassing unmodified SPCEs. Under optimal conditions, the sensor achieved a limit of detection (LOD) of 13.58 mM and a limit of quantification (LOQ) of 45.28 mM. Furthermore, hardware evaluation showed the FPGA executes temperature compensation with an ultra-low latency of 1.80 µs. A hybrid duty-cycling strategy restricts the average current to 1.85 mA, allowing over 172 hours of continuous operation on a 320 mAh battery. These results demonstrate the hardware-accelerated, IoT-enabled La-rGO/SPCE platform's potential for continuous, non-invasive epidermal sweat analysis.

Keywords

Collaboration network of the authors

40 authors · 145 co-authorship links · 16 across different organisations · showing the 40 most connected

Hover or tap a name to highlight its co-authors. Double-click to open the author's page.

  • Jenderal Soedirman University
  • Institut Agama Islam Negeri Ternate
  • Nara Institute of Science and Technology
  • Mercu Buana University
  • Universitas Islam Negeri Sultanah Nahrasiyah Lhokseumawe
  • Universitas Islam Negeri Ar-Raniry
  • National Research and Innovation Agency
  • Affiliation unknown
  • Different organisations
  • Same organisation
  • Affiliation unknown
  • Thicker line = more joint articles · bigger circle = more articles
Show as table
Co-authorOrganisationJoint articles
Yogi RamadhaniJenderal Soedirman University10
Mukhtar EffendiAffiliation unknown6
Sib Krishna GhoshalAffiliation unknown6
Candra KurniawanAffiliation unknown6
Haris Budi WidodoJenderal Soedirman University5
Suroso SurosoAffiliation unknown4
Mudrik AlaydrusMercu Buana University4
Erfan HandokoAffiliation unknown4
Putra Dwi SusantoAffiliation unknown4
Madya Ardi WicaksonoAffiliation unknown4
Arsil Kultura AnzilAffiliation unknown3
Kartika Dwi HapsariAffiliation unknown3
Futiat Diana KartikaAffiliation unknown3
Ariep Soelaiman SetiadiJenderal Soedirman University2
Wahyu SiswandariJenderal Soedirman University2
Arif Pujo RiyantoJenderal Soedirman University2
Muhammad Syaiful AliimJenderal Soedirman University2
Muhammad Irham AkbarJenderal Soedirman University2
Andreas S. AryantoAffiliation unknown2
Mohammad Irham AkbarAffiliation unknown2
Eman SutrisnaAffiliation unknown2
Alfin ChrisantyJenderal Soedirman University1
Pangestu F. WibowoJenderal Soedirman University1
Fibra R. FirmandaJenderal Soedirman University1
Muhammad Rifqi KurniawanJenderal Soedirman University1
Zulkhairi ZulkhairiUniversitas Islam Negeri Sultanah Nahrasiyah Lhokseumawe1
FitriyaniAffiliation unknown1
SafriadiUniversitas Islam Negeri Ar-Raniry1
Muhammad Ali AkbarAffiliation unknown1
M. Cidi RosadiNational Research and Innovation Agency1
Siti Uswatun HasanahAffiliation unknown1
Sunardi SunardiAffiliation unknown1
Winasis WinasisAffiliation unknown1

Affiliations come from OpenAlex; journal OAI-PMH metadata carries none. Authors without an OpenAlex ID are matched by name, which can merge or split people.

Metadata source: OAI-PMH (metadata jurnal) http://ijres.iaescore.com/index.php/IJRES/oai, first harvested 8 Nov 2026, last seen 8 Nov 2026.
Original metadata (oai_dc) 
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	<dc:title xml:lang="en-US">Lanthanum-doped reduced graphene oxide modified screen-printed carbon electrode for lactic acid sensing</dc:title>
	<dc:creator>Supriyanti, Retno</dc:creator>
	<dc:creator>Dwi Awanda, Rafi Satria</dc:creator>
	<dc:creator>Widanarto, Wahyu</dc:creator>
	<dc:creator>Rahmawati, Dina</dc:creator>
	<dc:creator>Wicaksono, Madya Ardi</dc:creator>
	<dc:creator>Rais Akhdan, Syafrudin</dc:creator>
	<dc:creator>Alqaaf, Muhammad</dc:creator>
	<dc:subject xml:lang="en-US">Electrochemical detection; Internet of things; Lactic acid sensor; Reconfigurable hardware field-programmable gate array; Wearable devices</dc:subject>
	<dc:description xml:lang="en-US">This study develops a high-performance lactic acid sensor by modifying screen-printed carbon electrodes (SPCEs) with lanthanum-doped reduced graphene oxide (La-rGO). To enable portable and wearable applications, the sensor is integrated into an internet of things (IoT) architecture utilizing a micro-power analog front-end (AFE), an ESP32-C6 controller, and a field-programmable gate array (FPGA) coprocessor for dynamic calibration. Electrochemical characterization demonstrated a high sensitivity of 20.36 µA·mM⁻¹·cm⁻², surpassing unmodified SPCEs. Under optimal conditions, the sensor achieved a limit of detection (LOD) of 13.58 mM and a limit of quantification (LOQ) of 45.28 mM. Furthermore, hardware evaluation showed the FPGA executes temperature compensation with an ultra-low latency of 1.80 µs. A hybrid duty-cycling strategy restricts the average current to 1.85 mA, allowing over 172 hours of continuous operation on a 320 mAh battery. These results demonstrate the hardware-accelerated, IoT-enabled La-rGO/SPCE platform's potential for continuous, non-invasive epidermal sweat analysis.</dc:description>
	<dc:publisher xml:lang="en-US">Institute of Advanced Engineering and Science</dc:publisher>
	<dc:contributor xml:lang="en-US">Jenderal Soedirman University funded this research through the International Research Collaboration Scheme 2025, contract number 2943/UN23.PT.01.05/2025.</dc:contributor>
	<dc:date>2026-11-01</dc:date>
	<dc:type>info:eu-repo/semantics/article</dc:type>
	<dc:type>info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion</dc:type>
	<dc:type xml:lang="en-US"></dc:type>
	<dc:format>application/pdf</dc:format>
	<dc:identifier>https://ijres.iaescore.com/index.php/IJRES/article/view/21847</dc:identifier>
	<dc:identifier>10.11591/ijres.v15.i3.pp671-682</dc:identifier>
	<dc:source xml:lang="en-US">International Journal of Reconfigurable and Embedded Systems (IJRES); Vol 15, No 3: November 2026; 671-682</dc:source>
	<dc:source>2722-2608</dc:source>
	<dc:source>2089-4864</dc:source>
	<dc:source>10.11591/ijres.v15.i3</dc:source>
	<dc:language>eng</dc:language>
	<dc:relation>https://ijres.iaescore.com/index.php/IJRES/article/view/21847/pdf</dc:relation>
	<dc:rights xml:lang="en-US">Copyright (c) 2026 Retno Supriyanti, Rafi Satria Dwi Awanda, Wahyu Widanarto, Dina Rahmawati, Madya Ardi Wicaksono, Syafrudin Rais Akhdan, Muhammad Alqaaf</dc:rights>
	<dc:rights xml:lang="en-US">http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0</dc:rights>
</oai_dc:dc>