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Identification of Lead Contamination in the Food Chain and Environment Surrounding Breastfeeding Mothers in Highland Agricultural Areas

JURNAL KESEHATAN LINGKUNGAN (Journal of Environmental Health) · Vol. 17 No. 1 (2025) · pp. 22–30

DOI
10.20473/jkl.v17i1.2025.22-30
ISSN
2540-881X, 1829-7285
Published
2025-01-31
Publisher
Universitas Airlangga
Language
eng
License
creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0

Abstract

Introduction: Lead in the environment can be more easily absorbed by individuals with nutritional deficiencies, particularly breastfeeding mothers residing in agricultural areas near lead sources. Contaminated breast milk can disrupt infants' growth and development. This study aims to identify lead contaminants in the environment and assess the nutritional status of breastfeeding mothers to provide preventive measures. Methods: This cross-sectional study was conducted in the highland agricultural area of Semarang Regency in October 2021. Environmental samples, including air from agricultural land, settlements, groundwater, and raw food were carried out as environmental samples from 31 breastfeeding mothers. Dietary intake, haemoglobin, MCV, MCH, MCHC, and lead levels in breast milk was carried out. Lead content was analysed using ICP-OES. Geographic information system (GIS) was used to compare spatial distribution lead status levels with identified exposure factors. Results and Discussion: Median age of breastfeeding mothers was 24 years, with 72% being housewives, having a senior high school education. Median age of the infants was 2.5 months, 32% being boys, and 48% were exclusively breastfed. Mean hemoglobin level of the mothers was 13 ± 1.4 g/dL (13.8% was anemic) and median lead level in breast milk was 0.019 ppm. None of the mothers met their recommended macro- and micronutrient intake. Lead content in foods was 0.02-0.180 ppm, groundwater 0.017-0.034 ppm, and air 0-1.56 μg/Nm3 over a three-hours. Conclusion: The environment surrounding breastfeeding mothers contains lead, particularly in the air, and these mother experiences nutritional deficiencies, thereby increasing the risk of lead absorption.

Keywords

Collaboration network of the authors

40 authors · 103 co-authorship links · 1 across different organisations · showing the 40 most connected

Hover or tap a name to highlight its co-authors. Double-click to open the author's page.

  • Diponegoro University
  • State University of Semarang
  • Universitas Esa Unggul
  • Universitas Syiah Kuala
  • Universitas Islam Negeri Sumatera Utara
  • Affiliation unknown
  • Different organisations
  • Same organisation
  • Affiliation unknown
  • Thicker line = more joint articles · bigger circle = more articles
Show as table
Co-authorOrganisationJoint articles
Alfi Fairuz AsnaAffiliation unknown6
Budiyono BudiyonoAffiliation unknown6
Sri Achadi NugraheniAffiliation unknown3
Bagoes WidjanarkoAffiliation unknown3
Ani MargawatiAffiliation unknown3
Ayun SriatmiAffiliation unknown2
Samingan SaminganAffiliation unknown2
Martha Irene KartasuryaAffiliation unknown2
P.W. NoviantiAffiliation unknown2
Narulita SantiDiponegoro University2
Celsy Miftaqul Tiara FannyDiponegoro University2
Maya Aiko Salsabila PutriDiponegoro University2
Mohammad Zen RahfiludinAffiliation unknown2
Suyatno SuyatnoAffiliation unknown2
Ariana ArianaAffiliation unknown1
Dyah PrimasariAffiliation unknown1
Naili FaridaAffiliation unknown1
Firmansyah Kholiq Pradana P. HAffiliation unknown1
Sofwan IndarjoState University of Semarang1
Efa NugrohoAffiliation unknown1
Bertakalswa HermawatiAffiliation unknown1
Moch Taufik HidayatullahAffiliation unknown1
Fice HandayaniAffiliation unknown1
Ratna Catur WidyaningtyaAffiliation unknown1
Fitri Alaida AlfianaAffiliation unknown1
Andi Ulfa Tenri PadaUniversitas Syiah Kuala1
Iswadi IswadiUniversitas Esa Unggul1
Tara Raudhatul JannahAffiliation unknown1
Syaukani SyaukaniUniversitas Islam Negeri Sumatera Utara1
Alfizar AlfizarAffiliation unknown1
Zulia AnandaAffiliation unknown1
Sirtina SirtinaAffiliation unknown1
Oviana LisaAffiliation unknown1
Saifun HakimAffiliation unknown1

Affiliations come from OpenAlex; journal OAI-PMH metadata carries none. Authors without an OpenAlex ID are matched by name, which can merge or split people.

Metadata source: OAI-PMH (metadata jurnal) https://e-journal.unair.ac.id/JKL/oai, first harvested 9 Nov 2026, last seen 9 Nov 2026.
Original metadata (oai_dc) 
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	<dc:title xml:lang="en-US">Identification of Lead Contamination in the Food Chain and Environment Surrounding Breastfeeding Mothers in Highland Agricultural Areas</dc:title>
	<dc:creator>Pangestuti, Dina Rahayuning</dc:creator>
	<dc:creator>Kartini, Apoina</dc:creator>
	<dc:creator>Suhartono, Suhartono</dc:creator>
	<dc:creator>Lisnawati, Naintina</dc:creator>
	<dc:creator>Putranto, Thomas Triadi</dc:creator>
	<dc:creator>Susanto, Novie</dc:creator>
	<dc:subject xml:lang="en-US">Agriculture</dc:subject>
	<dc:subject xml:lang="en-US">Breast milk</dc:subject>
	<dc:subject xml:lang="en-US">Breastfeeding mother</dc:subject>
	<dc:subject xml:lang="en-US">Food</dc:subject>
	<dc:subject xml:lang="en-US">Lead</dc:subject>
	<dc:description xml:lang="en-US">Introduction: Lead in the environment can be more easily absorbed by individuals with nutritional deficiencies, particularly breastfeeding mothers residing in agricultural areas near lead sources. Contaminated breast milk can disrupt infants' growth and development. This study aims to identify lead contaminants in the environment and assess the nutritional status of breastfeeding mothers to provide preventive measures. Methods: This cross-sectional study was conducted in the highland agricultural area of Semarang Regency in October 2021. Environmental samples, including air from agricultural land, settlements, groundwater, and raw food were carried out as environmental samples from 31 breastfeeding mothers. Dietary intake, haemoglobin, MCV, MCH, MCHC, and lead levels in breast milk was carried out. Lead content was analysed using ICP-OES. Geographic information system (GIS) was used to compare spatial distribution lead status levels with identified exposure factors. Results and Discussion: Median age of breastfeeding mothers was 24 years, with 72% being housewives, having a senior high school education. Median age of the infants was 2.5 months, 32% being boys, and 48% were exclusively breastfed. Mean hemoglobin level of the mothers was 13 ± 1.4 g/dL (13.8% was anemic) and median lead level in breast milk was 0.019 ppm. None of the mothers met their recommended macro- and micronutrient intake. Lead content in foods was 0.02-0.180 ppm, groundwater 0.017-0.034 ppm, and air 0-1.56 μg/Nm3 over a three-hours. Conclusion: The environment surrounding breastfeeding mothers contains lead, particularly in the air, and these mother experiences nutritional deficiencies, thereby increasing the risk of lead absorption.</dc:description>
	<dc:publisher xml:lang="en-US">Universitas Airlangga</dc:publisher>
	<dc:date>2025-01-31</dc:date>
	<dc:type>info:eu-repo/semantics/article</dc:type>
	<dc:type>info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion</dc:type>
	<dc:format>application/pdf</dc:format>
	<dc:format>text/xml</dc:format>
	<dc:identifier>https://e-journal.unair.ac.id/JKL/article/view/62520</dc:identifier>
	<dc:identifier>10.20473/jkl.v17i1.2025.22-30</dc:identifier>
	<dc:source xml:lang="en-US">JURNAL KESEHATAN LINGKUNGAN ; Vol. 17 No. 1 (2025): JURNAL KESEHATAN LINGKUNGAN; 22-30</dc:source>
	<dc:source>2540-881X</dc:source>
	<dc:source>1829-7285</dc:source>
	<dc:language>eng</dc:language>
	<dc:relation>https://e-journal.unair.ac.id/JKL/article/view/62520/31635</dc:relation>
	<dc:relation>https://e-journal.unair.ac.id/JKL/article/view/62520/31636</dc:relation>
	<dc:rights xml:lang="en-US">http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0</dc:rights>
</oai_dc:dc>